Axial+Skeleton


 * __1. Identify and name the bones of the skull__**

The fetal skull has thinner, smaller, and more deformable bones. The skull is slightly differently shaped, and the bones contain multiple ossification centers. The fontanels are sections of bone that have not ossified, to allow the fetus's head to deform during childbirth. These sections are still very tough, but also allow the skull to shift in place during the passage through the birth canal. The fontanels ossify a few years after birth (usually being complete by the child's second birthday). The fontanels eventually form the jagged teeth like edges that connect the various pieces of the cranial case.
 * __2. Compare and contrast the fetal and adult skulls and explain the role of the fontanels__**

The different vertebral regions: __*Anatomy of Thoracic Vertebra__ [|*Anatomy Structure of Lumbar Vertebra] __***The sacrum**__ is a fushion of five vertebrae and forms the posterior wall of the pelvis. __***The coccyx**__ is a fushion of three to five vertebrae at the bottom of the spinal column.
 * __3. Identify and distinguish between bones from the different vertebral regions__**
 * __*The cervical vertebrae__** make up the top section of the spine and form the neck region. There are **seven** cervical vertebrae (C1-C7). They are the **smallest and lightest** vertebrae. They have **short spinous processes that are divided into 2**. The transverse processes of cervical vertabrae have **foramen to allow vertebral arteries to bring blood to the brain**. The first cervical vertebrae is the **atlas,** and the second is the **axis**. These vertebrae are essential in supporting the head and allowing rotation of the neck.
 * [|Anatomy of Cervical Vertebra]
 * __*The thoracic vertabrae__** make up the next region. There are **twelve** thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12). They have a heart shaped body and **costal facets for articulation with the ribs.** The defining feature of thoracic vertebrae is a **spinous process that hangs down like a giraffe's neck**.
 * __The lumbar vertebrae__** make up the next region. There are **five** lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5). They have **massive block-like bodies** and are the sturdiest of the vertebrae. They have **hatched shaped spinous processes**. The **foramen in lumbar vertebrae are smaller** because the spinal cord is thinner at the bottom.

Bones from different vertebral regions are structured differently to enable them to perform different functions that are essential in that region. //For example://
 * __4. Explain how and why bones from different vertebral regions are structured differently__**
 * Atlas**- the atlas has no body to allow for articulation with the adontoid process of the axis. The absence of a body also allows the head to be supported and for there to be a larger vertebral foramen to fit the thicker spinal cord.
 * Axis-** has adontoid process to act a sa pivot point for the neck.
 * Cervical Vertebrae-** smallest and lightest vertebrae because they are at the top of the body and thus have to support less weight. They have foramen on the transverse processes to allow arterties to pass through to the brain.The spinous process is short and divided to allow for more muscle attatcment in the neck region. There are a lot of cervical vertebrae is a small region to allow for more movement.
 * Thoracic Vertebrae**- They have costal facets for articulation with the ribs to protect the thoracic cavity in that region.They have a giraffe like spinous process that hangs down for muscle attachment.
 * Lumbar Vertebrae-** They have massive, block-like bodies that make them the sturdiest vertebrae. Theyu have to be the sturdiest because they support the most body weight being that they are at the end of the vertebral column. They have the smallest vertebral foramen because at the bottom of the vertebral column the spinal cord starts to branch and decreases in size.

or.... The lumbar puncture, or spinal tap, is a procedure in which cerebrospinal fluid is drawn from the lumbar region of the spine. Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and runs throughout the spine. It contains white blood cells, proteins, and glucose. In order to perform a spinal tap, the patient must lean forward to his or her knees, or lay in the "fetal position," in order to separate the vertebrae. Since equilibrium is lost with the removal of CSF, the patient must lay immobile for 6-12 hours following the procedure. The lumbar puncture is mainly used to detect meningitis, but can also diagnose multiple sclerosis, various cancers, polio, and other diseases. Meningitis is detected by an increased presence of white blood cells and a protein imbalance. Infants with unexplainable fevers usually receive a spinal tap in case of meningitis, since it is an easily treatable disease. Lumbar punctures can also be used to treat pressure in the spine and head.
 * __5. Explain how a spinal tap used to diagnose spinal cord and brain imbalances__**

There are three major types of abnormal spinal curvatures: **Scoliosis**, **Kyphosis**, and **Lordosis**. All three major abnormalities may be present at birth (congenital), or may result from unequal muscle pull on the spine, injury, disease, and poor posture.
 * __6. Compare different spinal abnormalities__**
 * Scoliosis** is a lateral curve in the spine usually starting at the top of the thoracic region and ending at the bottom of the lumbar region. This affects posture, and depending on the degree of the curvature, can severely alter body symmetry. Scoliosis is often found in females, and growth spurts can dramatically worsen the condition.
 * Kyphosis** is a longitudinal curve starting at the atlas, and ending at either the very top of the lumbar region, or the very bottom of the thoracic region. It affects the upper back and can lead to what we know today as a "hunch back".
 * Lordosis** is also a longitudinal curve, starting at the top of the thoracic region, and ending at the coccyx. This abnormality affects the lower back, and pushes the spinal column into the stomach.

The invertebral discs' function is to cushion the vertebrae and absorb shock. At a young age the discs are made up of 90% water and are spongy and compressible. However, over time the amount of water in the discs decreases causing the discs to become harder and less compressible. When this occurs a person has an increased chance of getting a herniated "slipped" disc. This is when the invertebral disc slips out from between the vertebrae and pinches the spinal cord. Along with the invertebral disc, the S-shaped structure of the vertebral column work together to prevent shock to the head when we walk or run. Also it allows the body trunk to be flexible. Curves that are present at birth are known as primary curvatures. Those curves are knowns as the thoracic and sacral curvatures. Curvatures that are developed as we grow up are known as secondary curvatures. The cervicle curvature appears when a baby can hold up its own head while the lumbar curvature develops when a baby begins to walk.
 * __7. Explain the importance of invertebral disks and spinal curvature__**

The thoracic cavity contains the heart and the lungs. The ribs and sternum work together to protect this area. It also enables the thoracic cavity to complete its function. The lungs expand and contract as we breathe. The ribs are a flat, thin bone and articulate to the sternum by way of false ribs made up of cartilage. This allows the rib cage to slightly expand with the thoracic cavity as we breath.
 * __8. Explain how the structure of the ribs and sternum enables the fuctioning of the thoracic cavity__**